Basil Bernstein - Codes & Class (1961)

Focus: grammatical constructions, judging contexts & class

Method: theory only.  Examples offered are invented examples of “typical” code use, not actual data.

Findings/conclusions: Working class families do not cultivate elaborated code (necessary for clarity in some situations), hence WC kids are disadvantaged in school.

William Labov (Martha’s Vineyard, 1962)

Focus: Accent features of native inhabitants

Method: Interviews - different ethnic groups and ages.

Findings/conclusions: Younger speakers (31-45), esp. male were using more traditional features to differentiate themselves from the “summer people”.

William Labov (New York, 1966)  

Focus: Post-vocalic “r” & social class

Method: Created environment where shop staff need to say “fourth floor”.  Created pressure by inducing repetition.  Used in 3 stores of different classes.  (This was only a part of a much larger project)

Findings/conclusions: Post-vocalic “r” was prestige version.  Middle class more likely to hypercorrect and say it second time, even if not said first time.

Peter Trudgill (Norwich, 1974)

Focus: Accent features & class

Method: 5 kinds of data (after Labov) - casual& careful speech, reading passages, reading word lists & reading word pairs.  Also asked people whether they used non-standard forms.

Findings/conclusions: Lower-classes drop “g” at end of present progressive verbs.  Men more likely to use non-standard forms (covert prestige) and women more likely to use standard forms (overt prestige).  Both sexes over-report own tendency.